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GNDU Question Paper-2021
B.A 1
st
Semester
PSYCHOLOGY
(Basic Psychological Processes)
Time Allowed: Three Hours Max. Marks: 75
Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The
Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-A
1. Write notes on:
(i) Psycho-Analysis
(ii) Functionalism.
2. Define Observation. Explain Observation method in detail.
SECTION-B
3. Define Motivation. Explain Physiological Motives.
4. Define Emotions. Explain James-Lange theory of Emotions.
SECTION-C
5. Define Learning. What are characteristics of Learning?
6. Write note on Insight Learning.
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SECTION-D
7. What is Parametric Statistics? Taking any data of 40 students to its Frequency
Distribution.
8. Calculate Median of the following:
C.I.
f
90-94
1
85-89
3
80-84
4
75-79
4
70-74
5
65-69
8
60-64
4
55-59
2
50-54
3
45-49
3
40-44
1
N=38
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GNDU Answer Paper-2021
B.A 1
st
Semester
PSYCHOLOGY
(Basic Psychological Processes)
Time Allowed: Three Hours Max. Marks: 75
Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The
Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-A
1. Write notes on:
(i) Psycho-Analysis
(ii) Functionalism.
Ans: Psycho-Analysis and Functionalism: Peering into the Mind and Society
On a cold Vienna morning in the early 1900s, a physician named Sigmund Freud sat opposite
a troubled patient. She spoke in fragments, her words drifting between sobs and silences.
Freud didn’t interrupt. He listened—closely, curiously. After weeks of therapy, he began to
notice a pattern: beneath her speech lay emotions she didn’t even know she felt. That
moment gave birth to a revolution called Psycho-Analysis, which attempted to map the
deep, hidden terrain of the human mind.
Meanwhile, far across the Atlantic, in the bustling cities of America, sociologists and
psychologists were asking a different kind of question: not “Why does the mind feel what it
feels?” but “How does thought help humans function in everyday life?” This perspective,
called Functionalism, looked at mental processes and social systems as tools—as parts of a
grand machine designed for survival and balance.
Let’s now explore these two concepts through clear storytelling, simple explanations, and
insightful analysis.
(i) Psycho-Analysis: Unlocking the Unconscious Mind
Origins and Definition
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Psycho-Analysis was developed by Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist, at the turn of
the 20th century. It’s both a therapeutic method and a theoretical framework used to
explore how unconscious motives, desires, and conflicts shape human behavior.
Freud believed that the mind is like an iceberg:
• The conscious mind is the small tip above water.
• The unconscious mind—filled with hidden fears, desires, and forgotten memories—
lies beneath.
His goal was to bring these buried feelings to light, helping patients understand their
behaviors and heal emotional wounds.
Structure of the Human Mind (Freud’s Model)
Freud divided the mind into three interacting parts:
• Id: The primal, impulsive part driven by pleasure. (E.g., “I want chocolate now!”)
• Ego: The rational, decision-making mediator balancing desire and reality.
• Superego: The moral compass, shaped by societal and parental values.
Example: If you’re tempted to cheat on a test:
• Your Id pushes you to do it.
• Your Superego tells you it's wrong.
• Your Ego decides whether or not to act.
This inner battle, Freud believed, influences much of our mental life—even when we’re
unaware of it.
Key Techniques Used in Psycho-Analysis
1. Free Association Patients speak freely without censoring their thoughts. This
unfiltered speech reveals unconscious themes.
2. Dream Analysis Dreams are “the royal road to the unconscious.” Freud interpreted
symbols (like flying, falling, locked doors) to uncover hidden wishes and conflicts.
3. Transference Patients may project feelings about important people (like parents)
onto the therapist—providing clues to unresolved issues.
4. Resistance and Repression When patients avoid certain topics, it indicates
psychological resistance—often guarding painful memories or feelings.
A Short Story: The Locked Room
A young woman named Clara always dreamt of locked rooms but couldn’t understand why.
Through psycho-analysis, Freud uncovered her forgotten childhood memory: once, her
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father had locked her in a room as punishment. That buried memory had formed anxiety
around confinement. Once realized, her dreams changed—and her anxiety began to heal.
This shows how psycho-analysis links the past to the present, unveiling invisible strings
shaping our emotions.
Criticism and Legacy
Though revolutionary, psycho-analysis has faced criticism:
• Too speculative: Much of Freud’s theory isn’t scientifically testable.
• Overemphasis on sexuality: Freud’s focus on sexual drives was controversial.
• Western bias: The theory often assumes cultural norms of 20th-century Europe.
Still, it influenced fields like psychology, literature, film, and art—and gave rise to deeper
understanding of identity, repression, and healing.
(ii) Functionalism: The Mind and Society in Motion
Definition and Context
Functionalism originated in early psychology and sociology. It was developed by thinkers like
William James, Emile Durkheim, and Herbert Spencer.
In psychology, Functionalism focuses on how mental processes help individuals adapt to
environments. In sociology, it views society as a system where each part serves a purpose,
maintaining overall stability.
Imagine a human body:
• The heart pumps blood.
• The lungs supply oxygen.
• The brain processes signals.
Every organ has a function. Similarly, society’s institutions—family, school, religion—work
like organs to keep social life healthy.
Functionalism in Psychology (William James)
• Emphasized the purpose of consciousness and behavior.
• Asked: “What does the mind do, and how does it help us survive?”
• Was less concerned with the structure of thoughts than with their utility.
Example: The feeling of fear helps you escape danger. Memory helps you learn. Emotion
helps you connect. Functionalism applauds the usefulness of these processes.
Functionalism in Sociology (Durkheim and Spencer)
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Durkheim studied how social facts—like religion, laws, or family—act as glue, binding
society.
Key ideas:
• Every institution has a function—even punishment or education.
• Social harmony depends on each part playing its role.
• When a part malfunctions (like corruption in politics), social equilibrium is disturbed.
Functionalists liken society to a machine: if one gear jams, the whole system struggles.
Types of Social Functions
Durkheim spoke about:
• Manifest functions: Intended and visible (e.g., schools teach subjects).
• Latent functions: Hidden and unintended (e.g., schools also teach discipline,
friendship, hierarchy).
Understanding both functions gives insight into how society truly works.
Story: The Invisible Pillar
In a bustling town, a local temple stood for centuries. People visited it for prayers—but few
realized it also taught generosity, offered shelter, and resolved disputes. When the temple
closed temporarily, the town’s social tensions rose. Scholars concluded it wasn’t just a
religious site—it was a functional pillar of social peace.
This story reflects Functionalism’s central belief: everything has a purpose, even if it's not
obvious.
Functionalism vs. Psycho-Analysis
Aspect
Psycho-Analysis
Functionalism
Focus
Inner mind, unconscious drives
Purpose of behavior or social structure
Methodology
Therapy, introspection
Observation, societal analysis
Key Figures
Sigmund Freud
William James, Emile Durkheim
Application
Mental health, identity
exploration
Understanding societal roles,
adaptation
Emphasis
Past memories and hidden
feelings
Survival and social cohesion
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Final Thought
If Psycho-Analysis is like diving into a deep ocean, searching for hidden treasures of memory
and emotion, then Functionalism is like mapping a flowing river, studying how each current
carries life forward.
Both are vital: one helps us heal the self, the other helps us understand the world. And just
like Rishabh watched rhythms dance in music, these philosophies reveal how thoughts and
societies move—with intention, emotion, and purpose.
2. Define Observation. Explain Observation method in detail.
Ans: A Window into Reality: Understanding Observation and Its Method – A Simple and
Story-Driven Explanation
Have you ever watched a little child curiously looking at ants walking in a line or stared
silently at people waiting at a bus stop, just noticing their body language, their expressions,
and what they’re doing? Whether you realize it or not, you were practicing something
known as Observation—an age-old method of understanding people, behavior, and the
world around us.
In fact, let me start with a short story to bring this concept to life.
Story Time: The Curious Case of Riya and the School Playground
Riya was a young psychology student. For her research project, she didn’t pick complex lab
experiments or interviews. Instead, she took a notebook, sat near her school’s playground,
and simply watched.
She observed how children formed groups, how they chose teammates for games, who led,
who followed, and how disputes were settled.
She wrote down everything without interrupting or interfering. After a few weeks, Riya was
amazed. Her notes revealed patterns in children's social behavior, leadership, and conflict
resolution that even her teachers found insightful.
So, what Riya did—watching behavior in a natural setting without disturbing it—is the core
of Observation.
What is Observation?
In the simplest words:
Observation is the process of carefully watching, listening, and noting the behavior, actions,
or events as they occur.
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It is a way of gathering data or information by using our senses—mainly sight and hearing—
without directly questioning the subject.
Unlike surveys or interviews where people are asked questions, Observation lets us see the
truth directly—how people actually behave, not just how they say they behave.
Why is Observation Important?
Imagine trying to understand animal behavior by simply asking the animals! Impossible,
right? So, scientists observe animals in their natural habitat to understand how they live.
In the same way, when studying human behavior—whether in psychology, sociology,
education, or marketing—observation is often the most direct and honest way to
understand what’s really going on.
Types of Observation
Observation isn’t just one thing. It has different types, depending on how it’s done. Let’s
break them down into easy-to-understand categories:
Participant vs. Non-Participant Observation
• Participant Observation: The observer becomes a part of the group being studied.
Example: A teacher sits among students during recess and plays with them while
observing their behavior.
• Non-Participant Observation: The observer remains outside the group and does not
interact with the subjects.
Example: Riya, from our story, watching children from a distance without joining in.
Structured vs. Unstructured Observation
• Structured Observation: The observer has a specific plan, checklist, or set of
behaviors to watch.
Example: A researcher observing how many times a student asks questions during a
class.
• Unstructured Observation: The observer watches openly without any fixed criteria
and notes anything interesting.
Example: Watching how shoppers behave in a store with no pre-planned focus.
Controlled vs. Naturalistic Observation
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• Controlled Observation: Conducted in a controlled environment like a lab where
conditions can be managed.
Example: Observing how people react to certain sounds in a soundproof room.
• Naturalistic Observation: Conducted in a natural environment where behavior
happens normally.
Example: Watching how people behave in a public park.
Overt vs. Covert Observation
• Overt Observation: People know they’re being watched.
Example: Employees are told their customer service is being observed.
• Covert Observation: People don’t know they’re being watched, ensuring natural
behavior.
Example: Observing people’s reactions to a street performance from a hidden
camera.
Steps in the Observation Method
Let’s now understand how the observation method is actually carried out. It’s not just
randomly watching things—it’s a scientific process.
1. Defining the Purpose
Every observation starts with a question:
• What do I want to know?
• What behavior or situation am I studying?
This helps the observer stay focused.
2. Selecting the Setting
Choose where the observation will take place—classroom, market, hospital, lab, or street.
This depends on what is being studied.
3. Deciding the Type of Observation
Based on the purpose, the observer decides:
• Should I become part of the group or stay outside?
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• Should I observe openly or secretly?
• Should I use a checklist or just freely observe?
4. Preparing the Tools
Sometimes, observers use tools like:
• Checklists
• Rating scales
• Audio or video recorders
• Field notes or diaries
5. Conducting the Observation
This is the actual process of watching and recording.
The observer must stay unbiased and neutral, just like a mirror reflecting the truth.
6. Recording the Data
Observations are written down immediately to avoid forgetting. Notes include:
• Behavior patterns
• Reactions
• Non-verbal cues (like body language)
• Environmental factors (weather, time, surroundings)
7. Interpreting and Analyzing
After data is collected, it is reviewed to find:
• Patterns
• Trends
• Conclusions
The observer then writes a report or makes decisions based on the findings.
Advantages of Observation Method
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Observation is often praised because:
• Real Behavior: It shows how people actually act, not how they say they do.
• No Language Barrier: Helpful where language differences exist.
• Natural Setting: Especially in naturalistic observation, behavior is unaffected.
• Non-Intrusive: In covert observation, people act freely.
Limitations of Observation Method
However, it’s not perfect. There are some drawbacks:
• Observer Bias: The observer might interpret things based on personal views.
• Time-Consuming: Good observation takes patience and time.
• Limited Scope: Only outward behavior can be observed—not inner thoughts.
• Ethical Concerns: Secretly observing people may raise privacy issues.
Another Quick Story: The Case of the Silent Library
In a study of stress behaviors among college students, a researcher quietly observed
students in a library during exam time.
Some students bit their nails, others kept tapping their feet. One even kept flipping through
the same page for 10 minutes!
None of these behaviors could be captured through a questionnaire. Only silent observation
revealed these subtle signs of anxiety.
Applications of Observation
Observation is used in many fields:
• Education: Teachers observe students’ learning styles.
• Psychology: Therapists observe patient behavior.
• Sociology: Researchers observe social groups and cultures.
• Marketing: Companies observe customer behavior in stores.
• Medicine: Doctors observe patient symptoms and reactions.
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Conclusion: Seeing is Believing
Observation is more than just looking—it’s seeing with a purpose. It is like holding up a
mirror to society and quietly learning its secrets without saying a word.
Like Riya in the school playground or the researcher in the silent library, observation teaches
us that sometimes the most powerful insights come not from asking, but from watching.
So next time you sit in a café or walk through a market, just stop and observe. You’ll be
surprised how much you can learn simply by paying attention.
That’s the beauty and power of the Observation Method—a silent but sharp tool in the
hands of every thoughtful student and researcher.
SECTION-B
3. Define Motivation. Explain Physiological Motives.
Ans: Understanding Motivation and Physiological Motives: A Journey From Hunger to
Purpose
Let’s begin this exploration not with Sigmund Freud or William James—but with a young boy
named Arjun, standing in a field under the scorching afternoon sun in rural India. He’s
holding a shovel, sweating, tired, and hungry. What drives him to keep digging? It’s not
fame, money, or dreams—it’s the smell of his mother’s cooking waiting at home and the
promise of rice if the work is done. This simple moment reveals the core of what
psychologists call motivation: the invisible energy that pushes us to act.
Now, let’s unpack this term thoroughly, building from this humble moment into a complete
psychological concept.
Definition of Motivation
Motivation refers to the internal process that initiates, directs, and sustains behavior. It’s
the reason behind why we do what we do—from eating and sleeping to studying and
striving toward goals.
In simpler words:
• “Motivation is the fuel that powers action.”
Psychologists describe it as a dynamic state—a moving force that arises from needs, desires,
and goals. Whether it’s a bird flying in search of food or a student burning the midnight oil
before exams, all behavior is underlined by some motive.
Components of Motivation
To understand motivation fully, consider these key aspects:
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• Activation: The initial decision to start a behavior (e.g., deciding to start studying).
• Persistence: The effort maintained over time despite obstacles (e.g., sticking to a
study schedule).
• Intensity: How vigorously the behavior is performed (e.g., focused vs. distracted
studying).
Types of Motivation
There are two major types:
• Intrinsic Motivation: Doing something for its own sake. Like painting because you
enjoy creating art.
• Extrinsic Motivation: Doing something for external rewards. Like studying hard to
win a scholarship.
Both types work together to shape our everyday choices. But before getting deeper into
psychological complexity, let’s explore Physiological Motives, the bedrock of all motivation.
Physiological Motives: The Body’s Demands
These motives are biological drives—automatic responses that arise from physical needs
essential for survival. You don’t decide to feel hungry or tired; your body demands it.
Psychologists call this kind of motivation primary or biogenic, because it’s rooted in our
biology.
Features of Physiological Motives
• Universal: Everyone experiences them regardless of culture or personality.
• Cyclic: They rise and fall naturally (e.g., hunger every few hours).
• Homeostatic: These motives aim to maintain internal balance (homeostasis), like
body temperature or hydration.
• Instinctive: They're largely unconscious and do not require reasoning.
Now, let’s explore the major types of physiological motives through real-life examples and
scientific clarity.
1. Hunger
Definition:
The drive to consume food to meet the body’s energy needs.
When glucose levels drop in the bloodstream, it signals the hypothalamus in the brain,
prompting feelings of hunger. This process isn’t just psychological—it’s deeply physiological.
Imagine Arjun again. His stomach rumbles after working in the fields. This physical
discomfort pushes him to seek out food—a behavior purely motivated by biology.
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Factors Affecting Hunger:
• Glucose level: Low levels trigger hunger.
• Hormones: Ghrelin increases appetite; leptin reduces it.
• Environmental cues: The smell of food can intensify hunger even if you’re full.
2. Thirst
Definition:
The urge to drink fluids to maintain hydration.
When the body loses water, osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect this imbalance. You
feel dry-mouthed, dizzy, and compelled to drink.
Ever notice how even after a meal, if you don’t have water, your body feels unsettled?
That’s thirst motivating you to rehydrate.
3. Sleep
Definition:
The body’s drive to rest and restore itself.
Sleep motivation arises from circadian rhythms and brain signals like melatonin levels. It
helps the body repair, recharge and consolidate memory.
Sleep deprivation can cause irritability, loss of focus, and even hallucinations—making it a
non-negotiable need.
4. Sex Drive
Definition:
The biological urge to reproduce and experience physical intimacy.
This motive is regulated by hormones like testosterone and estrogen. While this drive differs
in intensity among individuals, it’s fundamentally tied to species survival.
In psychology, this motive is explored not just biologically but also emotionally and socially.
5. Temperature Regulation
Humans are driven to maintain an optimal body temperature (around 98.6°F). If you're too
cold, you’ll seek warmth; if overheated, you’ll crave shade or remove clothing.
This regulation is automatic but also behavioral: we seek environments that support our
body’s needs.
6. Pain Avoidance
Pain triggers immediate motivation to escape, avoid, or remedy the cause. It’s a protective
mechanism, guiding behavior away from danger or harm.
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A child touches a hot pan and yanks their hand back—not out of thought, but instinct. This
instant reaction is biological motivation in action.
Story: The Desert March
Let’s now take you to a desert where a group of trekkers lose their path. As hours pass, their
motivations shift dramatically. First, they were excited to reach the destination (extrinsic
motivation). But as the sun blazes, physiological motives take over. Their brains scream:
“Water!” “Shade!” “Rest!” The joy of sightseeing fades—their biological survival needs are
now the only priority.
This story illustrates that while humans often chase dreams and desires, it is the
physiological motives that anchor them when life gets real.
How Physiological Motives Differ From Other Motives
Feature
Physiological Motives
Psychological/Social Motives
Origin
Biological (body)
Emotional, cognitive, societal
Control
Involuntary
Often conscious
Universality
Universal across cultures
Culture and personality influenced
Examples
Hunger, thirst, sleep
Achievement, affiliation, curiosity
Final Thoughts
Physiological motives may seem basic, but they are the foundation of behavior. They remind
us that no matter how advanced our goals get—learning astrophysics or launching
startups—our body still calls the shots.
Motivation, in its entirety, is both profound and practical. It drives survival, fuels dreams,
and powers progress—from a hungry child searching for food to a scientist chasing
knowledge.
So the next time you feel thirsty or anxious before an exam, remember: it’s all motivation.
And it’s more than just a drive—it’s life’s silent engine.
4. Define Emotions. Explain James-Lange theory of Emotions.
Ans: A Walk in the Forest: Let’s Begin with a Story
One day, Meena, a college student, went for a peaceful walk in a dense forest near her
hometown. The sun was shining softly, birds chirped, and the rustling leaves created a
soothing symphony. She was enjoying the quiet until suddenly, a snake slithered across the
path just a few feet ahead of her.
Immediately, her heart started pounding. Her breathing became fast. Her legs trembled,
and her body felt frozen. And then, she thought, "I am scared!"
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Now pause here. Notice something?
Her body reacted first, and the feeling of fear came after. That’s exactly what the James-
Lange Theory of Emotion is all about.
Before we dive deeper into that theory, let’s first understand what emotions are.
What Are Emotions?
Definition of Emotions:
Emotions are intense mental and physical responses to a stimulus (an event or situation),
which usually involve:
• Physiological changes (like heartbeat, sweating, trembling),
• Subjective feelings (like happiness, anger, fear),
• Expressive behaviors (like smiling, crying, shouting).
In simple words, emotions are the feelings we experience when something happens to us. If
someone hugs you – you feel warmth and love. If someone scolds you – you might feel
anger or sadness.
Characteristics of Emotions
Let’s understand some key features of emotions:
1. Subjective: Different people may react differently to the same situation.
2. Temporary: Emotions don’t last forever; they change.
3. Multidimensional: They involve mind (thoughts), body (physical reactions), and
expression (like crying or laughing).
4. Triggered by Events: Whether it’s a happy news or a scary scene, emotions don’t
come out of nowhere.
5. Influence Behavior: Emotions can change the way we act — anger might lead to
shouting, joy to dancing.
James-Lange Theory of Emotions
Now, coming back to Meena’s forest experience — let’s understand what the James-Lange
Theory says.
Who were James and Lange?
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• William James – An American psychologist and philosopher.
• Carl Lange – A Danish physiologist.
Both, working independently in the late 1800s, came to a very bold and different idea about
emotions.
What does the James-Lange Theory say?
In simple terms, this theory says:
“We do not tremble because we are afraid; we are afraid because we tremble.”
Let’s explain this line.
Traditionally, people thought:
Event → Emotion → Physical Response
(You see a snake → You feel fear → Your heart races)
But James-Lange flipped it. They said:
Event → Physical Response → Emotion
(You see a snake → Your heart races → You feel fear)
That means:
The body reacts first.
The emotion is the result of noticing those body changes.
Step-by-Step Process (According to James-Lange):
1. A stimulus occurs (e.g., you see a snake).
2. Your body reacts automatically (heart rate increases, muscles tense, breathing
quickens).
3. You become aware of these changes.
4. Your brain interprets them as an emotion (like fear).
Another Simple Story to Understand
Let’s say Rahul is watching a horror movie. Suddenly, a ghost jumps on the screen.
• His muscles tense.
• His heart starts racing.
• He starts to sweat.
Only after these changes, he realizes, "I’m scared!"
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This theory suggests that if Rahul didn’t have these physical changes, he might not even
feel scared.
Real-Life Examples:
1. Blushing in Embarrassment:
When you make a mistake in front of a crowd, you start to blush and your heartbeat
increases. These physical changes signal to your brain that you’re feeling
embarrassed.
2. Crying and Sadness:
Sometimes, we cry first (due to stress or a sudden trigger), and then we feel
emotionally low. This supports the idea that the body’s reaction can come before the
emotional realization.
Strengths of James-Lange Theory
1. Link between body and mind:
It highlights how emotions are not just in the brain — our body plays a big role.
2. Helps understand psychosomatic illnesses:
Many psychological conditions cause physical symptoms. This theory helps explain
why our mind and body are deeply connected.
3. Practical in therapy:
Some therapies (like breathing exercises and relaxation techniques) use body control
to manage emotions — which indirectly supports this theory.
Criticisms of James-Lange Theory
Like every theory, this one has its weaknesses too.
1. Same body reaction, different emotions:
Sometimes the same physical response can happen for different emotions.
For example:
• A racing heart can mean fear, excitement, or anger.
So, how does the body know which emotion to create?
2. People with spinal injuries:
Some people with no physical sensations (due to spinal cord injury) still feel
emotions. This challenges the idea that emotions come only after physical
responses.
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3. Too much focus on body:
The theory may underestimate the role of the brain and thoughts in emotions.
Modern View: What Do Today’s Psychologists Say?
Today, psychologists believe that the James-Lange Theory was partially right.
• Yes, body reactions are important.
• But emotions are more complex.
• Cognition (thinking) also plays a role. Our interpretation of a situation matters too.
For example, if you see your friend running towards you shouting, you might feel scared.
But once you recognize his face, your emotion changes to happiness or relief. This means
thoughts + body + situation = emotion.
Conclusion (Summing Up Like a Pro Student)
Emotions are the colors of our life. They make us laugh, cry, love, and fight. Understanding
emotions helps us know ourselves better.
The James-Lange Theory of Emotion gave us a fresh way to think — suggesting that
emotions are not the cause but rather the effect of our body’s reactions. According to this
theory, when something happens, our body reacts first, and then our brain feels the
emotion based on those changes.
Though modern psychology doesn’t fully accept this idea, it has greatly influenced how we
study emotions today.
SECTION-C
5. Define Learning. What are characteristics of Learning?
Ans: A New Beginning: Raju and the Mango Tree
In a quiet village surrounded by hills, lived a curious little boy named Raju. One day, he saw
his neighbor climb a mango tree with ease and pick ripe, juicy mangoes. Raju wanted to do
the same. He tried the next morning, but fell. Again and again, he tried—and failed. But
slowly, as he observed others, listened to their tips, and practiced daily, he became better.
After a week, he finally climbed the tree, plucked his first mango, and proudly ran home.
Now, pause for a second.
What exactly happened here?
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Was Raju born knowing how to climb trees? No.
Did he learn it by trying, observing, practicing, and improving step by step? Absolutely yes!
This little moment in Raju’s life holds the essence of “Learning.”
Definition of Learning
Learning is the process through which an individual acquires new knowledge, skills, habits,
attitudes, or values through experience, observation, practice, or study. It results in a
relatively permanent change in behavior or understanding.
In simpler terms:
“Learning is a change in behavior or understanding that comes from experience.”
Psychologists like B.F. Skinner and Hilgard describe it as:
“Learning is the process by which behavior is modified or changed through practice,
training, or experience.”
So, whether it's learning to walk, solve a math problem, play a musical instrument, or climb
a mango tree like Raju — it all involves learning!
Key Characteristics of Learning
Let’s now explore the characteristics of learning, using real-life examples, observations, and
one more short story along the way to keep things enjoyable and memorable.
1. Learning is a Lifelong Process
Learning does not stop at school or college. From the moment we are born till our last
breath, we keep learning. A baby learns to crawl, a student learns to study, a professional
learns new skills, and even elderly people learn how to operate smartphones these days!
Example: A 70-year-old woman named Shanti Devi learned to use YouTube to teach cooking
during the pandemic. She became a viral sensation, showing that learning truly has no age.
Takeaway: Learning is continuous and dynamic.
2. Learning Involves Change
One of the core characteristics of learning is that it brings change—in knowledge, behavior,
thinking, or attitude.
When Raju learned to climb the mango tree, his behavior changed from “falling down” to
“climbing successfully.”
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This change could be:
• Positive (like learning to speak politely),
• Negative (like learning bad habits), or
• Neutral (like learning random trivia).
But in all cases, some form of change happens.
3. Learning is Purposeful and Goal-Oriented
Most of the time, learning happens with a goal in mind.
You learn to read so you can understand stories.
You learn mathematics to solve problems.
Raju learned climbing so he could get mangoes!
There’s always a reason or motivation behind learning.
Even in unconscious or unintentional learning, there’s often a hidden purpose—like survival
or adaptation.
4. Learning is Active and Requires Effort
Learning is not passive.
It requires attention, interest, thinking, practicing, and sometimes failing and trying again.
You cannot learn swimming just by watching videos—you have to jump into the water!
Learning is not something that “just happens” to you.
You must be actively involved.
5. Learning is Universal
Every living being learns. Humans, animals, and even birds and insects.
Example: A dog learns to fetch a ball, a parrot learns to mimic sounds, and humans learn
languages.
So, learning is a universal process.
No matter where you are, what language you speak, or what age you are—everyone learns.
6. Learning is Influenced by Experience and Environment
Learning doesn’t happen in isolation.
Our surroundings, people, culture, and situations influence what we learn and how we
learn.
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A child growing up in a musical family may learn singing early.
A student in a competitive class may learn faster due to peer pressure.
So, the environment and past experiences shape learning.
7. Learning May Be Formal or Informal
Learning can happen inside a classroom with books and teachers (formal) or outside in daily
life experiences (informal).
Raju didn’t learn tree climbing from a book. He learned it informally by watching, trying, and
practicing.
Both forms are valuable, and sometimes informal learning teaches us life’s most important
lessons.
8. Learning is Measurable (to Some Extent)
Though we cannot always see learning directly, we can often measure it through behavior
or performance.
If a student starts solving algebra problems correctly after a lesson, we know learning has
happened.
Teachers use tests, observations, or practicals to assess learning.
9. Learning is Sometimes Unconscious or Incidental
Not all learning is intentional.
Sometimes, we learn things without even realizing it.
A child may learn how to open a smartphone just by watching adults.
You might pick up a new word just by overhearing someone.
This kind of learning is incidental or observational, and it still plays a big role in
development.
10. Learning Requires Reinforcement and Repetition
One-time exposure doesn’t always lead to permanent learning.
We need to revise, repeat, and practice to remember or master something.
Raju failed several times before finally climbing the tree.
The same applies to subjects—revision and practice make the concepts stick.
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11. Learning is Cumulative
Learning often builds upon previous knowledge.
You cannot solve complex maths problems unless you understand the basics.
Every new learning becomes the foundation for further learning. Like building blocks, one
layer supports the next.
12. Learning Varies from Person to Person
People learn at different paces and in different ways.
Some learn better through visuals, some through writing, some by doing.
This is known as individual differences in learning.
A good teacher understands that one method doesn’t fit all.
13. Learning is Sometimes Trial and Error Based
Especially in early childhood or while learning practical skills, we learn through trial and
error.
Like how Raju tried, failed, adjusted, and tried again until he succeeded.
Each mistake teaches us something new.
This method of learning is very natural and often long-lasting.
Conclusion: The Power of Learning
Learning is one of the most beautiful and powerful gifts we have as humans.
It helps us grow, adapt, solve problems, and achieve our dreams.
Whether it’s Raju climbing the tree for a mango, or a student preparing for exams, the
process of learning is what makes it all possible.
To summarize:
Aspect
Key Point
Definition
Learning is a change in behavior or understanding through experience.
Nature
Continuous, purposeful, measurable, and influenced by the environment.
Types
Formal and informal, conscious and unconscious.
Methods
Observation, imitation, trial & error, reinforcement.
Requirements
Active effort, interest, repetition, and feedback.
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So, never stop learning.
Because the more you learn, the higher you grow—just like Raju, who reached the top of
the tree and tasted success with a sweet mango in hand.
6. Write note on Insight Learning.
Ans: Insight Learning: The Aha! Moment of Human Intelligence
Not all learning comes from repetition or trial and error. Sometimes, knowledge strikes like
lightning. Imagine you're puzzling over a complex riddle for hours… and then, in a flash, the
answer hits you. There's no logical step-by-step trail—it just appears, fully formed. That
magical mental leap is called Insight Learning, a phenomenon that teaches us humans are
not just reactive creatures, but deeply thoughtful ones.
To understand this concept, let’s begin not with psychology textbooks, but with a
remarkable tale from a sunny research station in Germany—a story that changed how
scientists think about problem-solving forever.
Story of Sultan: A Chimpanzee's Eureka Moment
In the 1920s, psychologist Wolfgang Köhler was studying chimpanzees on the Canary
Islands. One clever chimp named Sultan became the star of an experiment. Researchers
placed a banana just out of reach outside Sultan's cage, and a stick inside the cage. Sultan
tried using the stick—but it wasn’t long enough.
He paused. He didn’t get frustrated. He looked around… then spotted another stick. After a
few moments of thought, Sultan connected the two sticks to make a longer one. He then
used the new tool to pull the banana closer.
That moment, where Sultan solved the problem not by trial and error but by mentally
reconfiguring the tools, is one of the earliest recorded examples of Insight Learning.
What Is Insight Learning?
Insight Learning is a type of cognitive learning where a solution suddenly becomes clear
without overt effort or step-by-step reasoning. It involves reorganizing existing information
to perceive a new relationship or pattern.
In simple terms:
Insight is the “aha!” experience—when the mind suddenly understands a problem without
needing to try multiple solutions.
Unlike rote memorization or habit-based learning, insight is intellectual, creative, and often
happens unexpectedly. It reflects mental clarity, not mechanical reaction.
Characteristics of Insight Learning
Insight learning isn’t just clever—it has distinct features:
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• Sudden Realization: The solution comes all at once, not gradually.
• Non-Linear Thinking: It skips the usual step-by-step problem-solving.
• Restructuring Perception: Insight requires seeing the elements of a problem in a
new way.
• No External Reinforcement Needed: Unlike conditioned learning, it arises from
internal understanding.
• Applies to Novel Situations: It can be used in unfamiliar scenarios, showing its
adaptability.
These traits show that insight learning is more than instinct—it’s a higher-order thinking
process.
Köhler’s Experiments and Theoretical Contribution
Wolfgang Köhler, a leading figure in Gestalt Psychology, was key in exploring insight
learning. Gestalt theory emphasizes that we perceive things as wholes, not just parts—and
this holistic perception enables insight.
Köhler’s work with chimpanzees showed:
• Animals could solve problems through mental manipulation, not just trial and error.
• Solutions were often preceded by a pause (suggesting mental reorganization).
• Once discovered, the solution was quickly repeated (suggesting understanding, not
luck).
He concluded that intelligent behavior arises from insight, not just conditioning.
Real-Life Examples of Insight Learning
1. Solving Puzzles You stare at a crossword clue for hours. Suddenly, you remember an
unrelated word from a conversation—it fits perfectly! That’s insight.
2. Scientific Discoveries Archimedes famously jumped out of a bathtub shouting
"Eureka!" after discovering how to measure volume through water displacement—a
classic case of insight.
3. Creative Writing and Art A poet might struggle to find the right metaphor, then
suddenly think of the perfect image out of nowhere.
A Second Story: The Broken Pendulum
A college student named Mira was asked in a psychology class to fasten a swinging
pendulum to the ceiling using common household objects: strings, weights, and tape. No
combination seemed to work. She paced the room in frustration, watching the pendulum
swing aimlessly.
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Then, she tied a key to one end of the string, tossed it gently, and realized the weighted
swing could be extended and hooked. She hadn’t practiced this before—it just clicked.
This “aha!” reflected insight learning: she mentally restructured the problem and found a
new way forward.
Insight Learning vs. Trial and Error
Feature
Insight Learning
Trial and Error
Process
Sudden mental realization
Repetitive attempts
Speed
Quick once insight is achieved
Time-consuming
Mental Effort
High-level cognitive processing
Minimal planning
Applicability
Novel and complex problems
Routine tasks
Outcome
Creative solution
Correct action through elimination
Importance in Education and Life
Insight learning is crucial because:
• It fosters creative thinking and problem-solving.
• It promotes deep understanding over surface-level memorization.
• It encourages learners to pause, reflect, and mentally explore.
• It’s applicable in diverse fields—from math to entrepreneurship.
In classrooms, insight can be nurtured through:
• Open-ended questions
• Reflective thinking
• Encouraging curiosity
• Providing challenging puzzles
Rather than pushing students to memorize, educators can design experiences that allow
insight to naturally bloom.
Psychological Perspectives
Gestalt Psychology
Emphasizes that insight comes from perceiving wholes, not just fragmented details.
Cognitive Psychology
Views insight as a result of mental mapping, understanding structure, and breaking mental
fixations.
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Neuropsychology
Suggests that insight involves activation of the right cerebral hemisphere, often linked with
creativity and pattern recognition.
Final Words: Insight as Intellectual Brilliance
Insight learning reminds us that sometimes, the mind sees what the eyes cannot. It bypasses
methodical routines and opens a portal to pure understanding. Whether it’s Sultan with two
sticks or a student solving a physics problem mid-shower, these moments define what
makes human thinking unique and powerful.
Insight is where knowledge meets creativity—where logic meets intuition—and where
problems meet solutions through the brilliance of perception.
SECTION-D
7. What is Parametric Statistics? Taking any data of 40 students to its Frequency
Distribution.
Ans: Parametric Statistics & Frequency Distribution: The Tale of the “Exam Results”
Mystery
Long ago in a quiet town named Mathpura, forty students sat in an exam hall, minds buzzing
with equations and theories. Their results would later stir excitement among the town’s
curious statisticians. One of them, Professor Arya, had a unique challenge—make sense of
the score data not just through simple averages, but by identifying patterns and parameters
that could tell a deeper story. What she used was something every statistics student
eventually meets: Parametric Statistics. Let’s travel through her journey to understand this
concept and use the data of those 40 students to create a frequency distribution—like
solving a puzzle piece by piece.
What Are Parametric Statistics?
In Simple Words:
Parametric statistics refers to statistical techniques that assume the data follows a particular
type of distribution, most often the normal distribution (a bell-shaped curve). These
methods work with parameters like mean (average), variance, and standard deviation.
Think of parametric statistics like baking with a recipe. You follow specific instructions
assuming the ingredients behave in predictable ways. Non-parametric statistics, in contrast,
are more freestyle.
Formal Definition:
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Parametric statistics are statistical methods based on the assumption that the sample data
comes from a population that can be described by a known distribution model, and that this
model can be fully characterized by a fixed number of parameters.
These include:
• Mean (μ) – the average
• Standard Deviation (σ) – the spread or dispersion
• Variance (σ²) – the square of standard deviation
Key Features of Parametric Statistics
• Assumes underlying distribution (usually normal distribution)
• Works with quantitative data
• Involves estimation of population parameters
• More powerful and precise than non-parametric methods—if assumptions are met
Examples of Parametric Tests
• t-test: Compares two means
• ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Compares multiple means
• Pearson correlation: Measures relationship between two continuous variables
• Regression analysis: Predicts one variable based on another
All of these depend on assumptions like normality, equal variance, and independence.
When to Use Parametric Statistics?
• Your data is interval or ratio-scaled (not just categories)
• Data follows a normal distribution (symmetrical curve)
• Variance within groups is roughly equal
• Sample size is sufficient (usually >30 is considered reasonable)
A Quick Comparison Table
Basis
Parametric Statistics
Non-Parametric Statistics
Assumption of
distribution
Yes (usually normal)
No
Type of data
Quantitative
Qualitative or quantitative
Use of parameters
Mean, SD, variance
Median, ranks
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Efficiency
Higher (if assumptions
met)
Lower but safer in bad data
Examples
t-test, ANOVA, regression
Chi-square test, Mann-Whitney
U
Story: The Midnight Puzzle of Arya
Professor Arya stayed up late on exam night. The scores of 40 students were scattered
across her desk like puzzle pieces. “What do they reveal?” she wondered. She knew that
mean and median could tell the central tendency, but parametric statistics could help her
understand the true shape and nature of the entire performance.
So she turned those numbers into a frequency distribution, like turning raw flour into a
fluffy cake—step-by-step.
Let’s Create the Frequency Distribution
Imagine we have this raw data (scores out of 100) for 40 students:
32, 47, 54, 49, 67, 75, 80, 58, 62, 45,
38, 72, 64, 59, 90, 50, 85, 77, 66, 61,
42, 55, 63, 70, 68, 74, 52, 60, 58, 64,
51, 69, 57, 56, 73, 48, 79, 83, 71, 65
Step 1: Sort the Data
Organizing helps in defining class intervals.
32, 38, 42, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52,
54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62,
63, 64, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71,
72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 83, 85, 90
Step 2: Decide Class Intervals
Let’s use intervals of 10 (starting from 30):
Class Interval
Frequency
30 - 39
2
40 - 49
6
50 - 59
10
60 - 69
10
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70 - 79
9
80 - 89
3
90 - 99
1
This table shows how many students fall into each range.
Step 3: Visual Representation
You can draw a histogram using the above data. It will show the distribution curve, and if it
looks symmetrical and bell-shaped, you’re dealing with normal distribution, making
parametric tools valid.
Step 4: Calculate Basic Parameters
We can now calculate:
• Mean: Add all scores and divide by 40 Let’s say the total score sum is 2600 → Mean
= 2600 / 40 = 65
• Standard Deviation (approx): Use formula
Assume SD ≈ 13.5
These are your parameters.
Interpreting the Frequency Distribution
With mean = 65 and SD = 13.5, we know:
• Most students score between 51.5 and 78.5 (mean ± SD)
• The performance is fairly spread
• There’s no significant skew, so parametric assumptions are likely met
Professor Arya used this analysis not just to summarize data, but to predict trends, plan
remedial classes, and design future question papers based on performance gaps.
Why Frequency Distribution Matters
It simplifies raw data and gives us:
• A clearer picture of spread
• Quick visual insights
• Identifiable patterns
• Easier comparison
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Without it, data stays chaotic and unreadable.
In Conclusion
Parametric statistics may sound intimidating, but it’s really a structured way of
understanding data when assumptions are met. It gives researchers powerful tools to
analyze trends, test hypotheses, and draw meaningful conclusions from numbers.
And when paired with tools like frequency distribution, it’s like turning a blurry photo into
an HD portrait—one that helps teachers, businesses, researchers, and even governments
make better decisions.
8. Calculate Median of the following:
C.I.
f
90-94
1
85-89
3
80-84
4
75-79
4
70-74
5
65-69
8
60-64
4
55-59
2
50-54
3
45-49
3
40-44
1
N=38
Ans: Introduction – The Story Begins…
Once in a peaceful village called "Statistix", there lived a wise old teacher named Professor
Veda. She had a magical board on which numbers danced, patterns formed, and solutions
revealed themselves like pieces of a puzzle. One day, a group of curious students came to
her and said, "Dear Professor, we have a table of class intervals and frequencies, but we
don’t know how to find the median from it."
Professor Veda smiled and said, “Ah, the median! It is like the middle traveler in a marching
band. Let’s find out where this traveler is standing.”
Let’s embark on the same journey today to understand how to calculate the median of a
grouped frequency distribution using the table you’ve provided.
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Given Frequency Distribution:
Class Interval (C.I.)
Frequency (f)
90 – 94
1
85 – 89
3
80 – 84
4
75 – 79
4
70 – 74
5
65 – 69
8
60 – 64
4
55 – 59
2
50 – 54
3
45 – 49
3
40 – 44
1
Total (N)
38
Step 1: Understand What Median Means
The median is the middle value of a dataset when arranged in order. But when data is
grouped (as in a frequency distribution), we don’t have individual values—we only know
how many values lie in certain ranges (class intervals). So we use a formula to calculate the
median from grouped data.
Step 2: Find the Median Class
To do that, we first calculate:
N = 38
So, N/2 = 19
Now, we need to create a Cumulative Frequency Table to identify the Median Class, which is
the class that contains the 19th value.
Let’s create the Cumulative Frequency (C.F.) column:
C.I.
f
C.F.
90 – 94
1
38
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85 – 89
3
37
80 – 84
4
34
75 – 79
4
30
70 – 74
5
26
65 – 69
8
21
60 – 64
4
13
55 – 59
2
9
50 – 54
3
7
45 – 49
3
4
40 – 44
1
1
(Cumulative frequency calculated from bottom to top to match class intervals descending
order)
Now, where does the 19th value lie?
It lies in the class 65 – 69, because the cumulative frequency just before it is 13, and the
next cumulative frequency becomes 21. So the 19th value lies in this class.
Thus, Median Class = 65 – 69
Step 3: Use the Median Formula
The formula for the median in grouped data is:
Where:
• L = Lower boundary of the median class = 64.5
• N = Total frequency = 38
• CF = Cumulative frequency before the median class = 13
• f = Frequency of the median class = 8
• h = Class width = 5 (for example: 65–69 → 69.5 - 64.5 = 5)
Step 4: Plug in the Values
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Let’s Pause for a Little Story
Back in Professor Veda’s class, one of her students, Rina, raised her hand and said, “So, the
median person in the group is somewhere in the class 65–69. And they are about 68.25
years old?”
The professor nodded, “Yes! It’s like imagining a group of 38 people standing in line based
on their age groups. The 19th person stands just inside the 65–69 range, slightly closer to
the upper side of that range. That’s how we locate the median, the middle one.”
Step 5: Why Do We Use This Formula?
Now, let’s understand why we use the formula:
• We know the median lies within a certain class.
• We estimate how far into the class interval the median value would be based on how
many values are needed to reach the midpoint (N/2).
• The formula uses proportions to estimate where exactly inside that class the median
would fall.
So the formula is not just a shortcut—it is a mathematical way of estimating the exact point
where the middle value would be, assuming the values are evenly distributed within each
class.
Final Answer:
Summary of the Steps – Like a Quick Checklist
1. Add frequencies to find total N.
2. Divide N by 2 to find the position of the median value.
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3. Calculate cumulative frequency (C.F.) to locate the class that includes the median
position.
4. Identify the median class (where the cumulative frequency just crosses N/2).
5. Use the Median Formula:
6. Substitute and solve to get the result.
“This paper has been carefully prepared for educational purposes. If you notice any mistakes or
have suggestions, feel free to share your feedback.”
